Bangladesh is a highly patriarchal society and gender discrimination is evident across all levels. Women are dependent on men throughout their lives, from their fathers through to husbands, brothers or sons. The Constitution affirms gender equality, but state legislation and institutions frequently disregard women’s rights. For example, women and young girls are more disadvantaged than men in their access to education, health care and financial assets.
Traditionally, women were recognised mainly for their reproductive role, and were often discouraged from participating in public life. Due to increased poverty and demand for labour, female employment has risen since the mid-1980s. Most of the information below concerns the Muslim majority, which makes up over 80 per cent of the population. Where available, information regarding Bangladesh’s Hindu and Christian populations is also included.
Women in Bangladesh have a relatively low level of protection in the family context. The country has the highest rate of early marriage in Asia, and ranks among the highest worldwide. A 2004 United Nations report estimated that 48 per cent of all girls between 15 and 19 years of age were married, divorced or widowed. Traditionally, parents marry their daughters young to decrease the economic burden on the household. Increased use of contraceptives and declining fertility rates provide more encouraging evidence that the role of women in Bangladesh is changing.
Polygamy is legal in Bangladesh, but many consider the practice to be outdated. The incidence of polygamy has decreased over the past 50 years (particularly in the cities); at present, about 10 per cent of married men are in such unions. As reported by the Islamic Republic News Agency, in 2006 the city of Rajshahi (the country’s fourth-largest city) introduced a new law and a so-called “polygamy tax”; any man taking a second wife must pay a one-time amount of BDT 10 000 (Bangladesh takas) (USD 142). The tax rises to BDT 30 000 (USD 426) for a third wife and BDT 40 000 (USD 568) for a fourth wife.
In Bangladesh, parental authority is closely linked to religion. Islamic Sharia law regards women as “custodians” but not legal guardians of their children. In the event of divorce, women can retain custody of sons until age seven and daughters until puberty. If a father dies, his children may be taken away by his family. Hindu law also views fathers as the natural, legal guardians of children.
Inheritance practices also follow religious teachings. According to Islamic law, daughters inherit half as much as sons. In the absence of a son, daughters can inherit only as a residuary (that is, only after the settling of all debts and other obligations). In principle, wives are entitled to half of the assets of a deceased husband. Under Hindu law, a widow (or all widows in the case of a polygamous marriage) inherits the same share as a son. For Christians, the Succession Act of 1925 provides equal inheritance between sons and daughters.
Bangladeshi women have a low level of protection for their physical integrity. Violence against women is quite common. A study released by the UN Population Fund in 2000 reported that 47 per cent of adult women surveyed had suffered physical abuse by their male partners. Early marriage and dowry customs are major factors in the ongoing problem of domestic violence.
As reported by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), the government has taken steps to address this problem by passing laws against these practices. The Prevention of Women and Children Repression Act, adopted in 2000, contains several important provisions. It identifies sexual harassment and repression as punishable crimes, and establishes a death penalty for those found guilty of rape charges. It also protects women by prohibiting newspapers from publishing photographs that identify the victims of such crimes. However, these laws have proven difficult to enforce, especially in rural areas where traditions and family customs tend to govern social life.
Gender-based violence outside the home includes sexual harassment in the workplace, assaults and rape. Acid attacks are also quite common, and are usually undertaken as an act of revenge by a rejected suitor or in response to land disputes. The government, the media and women’s rights organisations are working to raise awareness of the problem of general violence against women. However, the lack of social infrastructure discourages women from filing complaints. In the absence of sufficient shelters for victims of abuse, the government must often resort to using prisons as holding places for women who file complaints and need safe housing. This situation frequently leads to further abuses.
Female genital mutilation is not believed to be practised in Bangladesh.
Bangladesh is one of the very few countries in the world in which males outnumber females, providing strong evidence to suggest that there is a problem of missing women. Census data reported by Hudson and others show that more than 2.7 million Bangladeshi women were missing in 2001. This is primarily the result of son preference, which leads to female sex-selective abortions, relative neglect of girls (compared to boys) in early childhood and abandonment.
Tradition and social norms limit the ability of Bangladeshi women to achieve financial independence. Despite their growing role in agriculture, social and customary practices effectively exclude women from any hope of direct access to land. Similarly, although national law accords men and women equal rights to access to property other than land, women own very few assets. Their situation is further impaired by discriminatory inheritance laws and cultural norms: Bangladeshi women are unlikely to claim their share of family property unless it is offered to them.
In Bangladesh, women’s access to bank loans and other forms of credit is often determined by the demographic composition of their households. Lack of mobility, particularly in rural areas, forces women to depend on male relatives for any entrepreneurial activities. Several NGOs provide micro-credit to Bangladeshi women, but there is a growing concern as to whether these women actually retain control over their loans.
Women in Bangladesh face several restrictions in relation to civil liberties. Their freedom of movement is usually restrained to the vicinity of their homes and local neighbourhoods. The Islamic practice of purdah may further limit their participation in activities outside the home, such as education, employment and social engagements. The degree of these restrictions depends very much on the traditions of individual families, but many women generally need the permission of their husbands to engage in any such activities.
Although there are no legal restrictions to women’s freedom of dress, it is customary for most Bangladeshi women to cover at least their hair.
CIDA (Canadian International Development Agency) (2001), Gender Profile: Bangladesh, CIDA, Gatineau, QC.
CEDAW (Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women) (2003), Consideration of Reports Submitted by States Parties Under Article 18 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women: Bangladesh, Fifth Periodic Report of States Parties, CEDAW/C/BGD/5, CEDAW, New York, NY.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development), ILC (International Land Coalition) (2004), Rural Women’s Access to Land and Property in Selected Countries: Progress Towards Achieving the Aims of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, FAO Gender and Population Division, IFAD Technical Advisory Division, and ILC, Rome.
Hudson, V. and A. Den Boer (2005), “Missing Women and Bare Branches: Gender Balance and Conflict”, ECSP (Environmental Change and Security Program) Report, No. 11, The Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Washington, DC.
Islamic Republic News Agency (2007), www.irna.ir, accessed 15 May 2007.
Klasen, K. and C. Wink (2003), “Missing Women: Revisiting the Debate”, Feminist Economics, Vol. 9, No. 2-3, Routledge, London.
UN (United Nations) (2004), World Fertility Report 2003, UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, New York, NY.
UNFPA (United Nations Population Fund) (2000), The State of World Population 2000, Lives Together, Worlds Apart: Men and Women in a Time of Change, UNFPA, New York, NY.
USAID (US Agency for International Development) (2003), Women’s Property and Inheritance Rights: Improving Lives in Changing Times, Final Synthesis and Conference Proceedings Paper, USAID Office of Women in Development, Bureau for Global Programs, Field Support and Research, Washington, DC.
US Department of State (2001), Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Bangladesh, US Depart¬ment of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, Washington, DC.
